How is history before medieval period constructed - what were the sources
Much of what we today call “ancient Hindu / pre-Islamic Indian history or pre-medieval history” was not preserved as continuous royal history books.
It was reconstructed later from inscriptions, coins, temples, grants, literary texts, travellers’ accounts, archaeology, coins, inscriptions, and colonial/postcolonial scholarly interpretation.
1) Brief history of archaeology in India: who started it and when?
What existed before formal archaeology began:
Antiquarian curiosity, texts, & monuments
Before archaeology became a formal discipline, India’s past was known through:
Sanskrit texts: Vedas, epics, Puranas, Dharmashastras, kavya, regional literature.
Buddhist and Jain texts.
Local temple legends, genealogies, matha records.
Persian and Arabic histories for later periods.
Visible monuments: temples, stupas, caves, forts, pillars, mosques, tombs.
Coins found by collectors.
Inscriptions seen on rocks, pillars, copper plates and temples — but many could not yet be read.
The early modern Indian past was therefore known partly through memory and texts, but not yet through a scientific, dated, archaeological framework.
The British-Orientalist beginning: Asiatic Society, 1784
The institutional study of India’s ancient past began under British rule, especially with the Asiatic Society of Bengal, founded in Calcutta by Sir William Jones in 1784.
It promoted the study of Sanskrit, Persian, inscriptions, coins, monuments and ancient texts. The Government of India’s own account says ASI grew out of “antiquarian, artistic and architectural investigations” that began around this period. (Press Information Bureau)
Important early names:
Sir William Jones — Asiatic Society, Sanskrit studies.
Charles Wilkins — early Sanskrit translations, including Bhagavad Gita.
H. T. Colebrooke — Sanskrit law, philosophy and texts.
James Prinsep — deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts in the 1830s.
Alexander Cunningham — later founder/first Archaeological Surveyor of India.
James Prinsep:
The breakthrough in deciphering the script ancient India.
A major turning point was James Prinsep’s decipherment of Brahmi and Kharosthi in the 1830s.
James Prinsep, was an English scholar, orientalist, and officer of the East India Company's Calcutta Mint. He deciphered the Brahmi script in 1837.
Before this, Ashoka’s inscriptions were visible, but not understood.
Once Brahmi was deciphered, ancient inscriptions could be read, and the mysterious “Devanampriya Piyadasi” was connected to Ashoka with help from Sri Lankan Buddhist chronicle traditions.
This unlocked Mauryan history, early Buddhism, early scripts, and large parts of ancient Indian chronology. (Wikipedia)
Indian ancient history became much more factual and datable once inscriptions became readable.
Archaeological Survey of India, 1861
The Archaeological Survey of India, or ASI, was founded in 1861, with Alexander Cunningham as the first Archaeological Surveyor.
ASI’s official history says Cunningham was appointed in December 1861 and surveyed a huge area from Gaya to the Indus, and from Kalsi to the Narmada between 1861 and 1865. (asi.nic.in)
Cunningham’s method was important. He used:
- Buddhist texts.
- Chinese pilgrim accounts, especially Xuanzang/Hiuen Tsang.
- Inscriptions.
- Coins.
- Ruins and site-surveys.
John Marshall and the scientific/professional expansion
Under Sir John Marshall, Director-General of ASI from 1902, archaeology became more organized and professional.
His period saw major excavations at Taxila, Sanchi, Sarnath, Harappa and Mohenjo-daro.
The Government of India’s note says ASI became a more pan-Indian institution under Marshall and that his period saw the discovery of the Indus Valley Civilisation, pushing Indian history back to the third millennium BCE. (Press Information Bureau)
Mortimer Wheeler and modern excavation methods
In the 1940s, Mortimer Wheeler introduced more rigorous excavation methods, especially stratigraphy and training in field archaeology.
 |
| Sir Mortimer Wheeler |
He worked at sites such as Arikamedu, Brahmagiri, Chandravalli and Maski and helped train a generation of Indian archaeologists. ASI’s post-Wheeler publications such as Ancient India and later Indian Archaeology: A Review helped standardize archaeological reporting. (Wikipedia)
2) What was known before archaeology, and how did archaeology change what we knew of ancient Indian history?
Before archaeology
Before archaeology and epigraphy matured, Indian ancient history was known through:
Puranic dynastic lists.
Epics and religious texts.
Buddhist and Jain texts.
Greek accounts such as Megasthenes.
Chinese pilgrims such as Faxian and Xuanzang.
Local traditions.
Monuments whose dates were uncertain.
Coins and inscriptions, many of which were not yet fully understood.
This meant that early Indian history was often vague, semi-legendary, or organized according to textual memory rather than firm chronology.
After archaeology and epigraphy
Archaeology changed Indian history in several major ways.
A. Ashokan inscriptions made the Mauryan Empire historically visible
Before Brahmi was deciphered, Ashoka was known mainly from Buddhist traditions. After Prinsep’s decipherment, Ashoka became a historically documented emperor whose edicts could be read directly.
The edicts gave historians evidence of:
His imperial geography.
His dhamma policy.
Administrative officers.
Buddhist connections.
Moral and political ideas.
The spread of early writing.
Impact: Knowledge of Ashoka transitioned from semi-textual memory into historical fact now based on some evidence.
B. Harappa and Mohenjo-daro pushed Indian urban history back by nearly 2,000 years
This was the biggest archaeological shake-up.
Before the Indus discoveries, many scholars thought India’s early civilization began mainly with the Vedic period or with later urbanisation around the first millennium BCE. (1000 BCE)
The discovery of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro revealed a much older urban civilization, dating to the third millennium BCE. (3000 BCE)
Sir John Marshall announced the discovery of the Indus Civilization to the world in 1924.
Harappa.com’s archive notes that Marshall’s article, “A Forgotten Age Revealed,” introduced the ancient Indus civilization publicly and that the discovery pushed back understanding of Indian history by about 2,000 years. (Harappa)
Impact: India was no longer seen as entering civilization only with the Vedic or Mauryan period.
It had a Bronze Age urban civilization contemporary with Egypt and Mesopotamia.
C. Taxila changed the understanding of north-west India
Excavations at Taxila showed that north-western India was not marginal but a major crossroads of:
Achaemenid influence.
Greek/Indo-Greek culture.
Mauryan rule.
Buddhism.
Gandhara art.
Trade routes.
Impact: Excavations at Taxila revealed that Indian history was connected to Central Asia, Iran and the Hellenistic world.
D. South Indian inscriptions changed the history of Cholas, Pallavas, Pandyas and others
South Indian temple inscriptions and copper plates allowed historians to reconstruct:
- Chola administration.
- Temple economies.
- Land grants.
- Irrigation.
- Village assemblies.
- Merchant guilds.
- Royal genealogies.
- Maritime trade.
Without inscriptions, early and medieval South Indian political history would be much thinner.
E. Megalithic and Iron Age archaeology changed the view of early South India
Megalithic burials, iron tools, pottery and settlement remains showed that South India had complex cultural developments before and during the early historic period.
Impact: South India was no longer treated as historically “late” merely because fewer early textual chronicles existed.
F. Arikamedu changed the view of Indo-Roman trade
Excavations at Arikamedu revealed Roman amphorae, beads and trade goods.
Extensive excavations led by Sir Mortimer Wheeler in the 1940s and later scholars brought to light brick warehouses, dyeing vats, and ancient Roman artifacts like Arretine ware and Amphorae jars. Dating back to 300 BCE, it was founded to be a Indo-Roman trading post and was a major global center for manufacturing beads.
Impact: South India’s role in Indian Ocean and Roman trade became archaeologically visible.
G. Nagarjunakonda, Sanchi, Bharhut, Amaravati changed Buddhist history
Excavations and inscriptions at Buddhist sites revealed the importance of monks, merchants, queens, guilds and lay donors.
Impact: Buddhism appeared not only as doctrine but as a social, economic and artistic institution.
3) Major archaeological and historical organizations involved
This is not literally every local body, but these are the major institutions that shaped the field.
1. Asiatic Society of Bengal / Asiatic Society
It was founded in 1784 by Sir William Jones.
Broad work:
- Sanskrit and Persian texts.
- Coins.
- Inscriptions.
- Ancient Indian religion and law.
- Early Orientalist scholarship.
- Publication of research through Asiatic Researches and later journals.
Importance:
It created the early intellectual environment in which ancient India became an object of systematic study.
ASI’s official history also traces archaeological and historical pursuits in India back to the work of William Jones and his circle. (asi.nic.in)
2. Archaeological Survey of India, ASI
Founded in 1861.
Broad work:
- Survey of monuments.
- Excavation.
- Conservation.
- Site documentation.
- Epigraphy.
- Museums.
- Protected monuments.
- Publication of excavation reports.
- Sanchi.
- Sarnath.
- Taxila.
- Harappa.
- Mohenjo-daro.
- Nalanda.
- Ajanta/Ellora conservation.
- Buddhist sites.
- Mauryan, Gupta, early medieval and Sultanate/Mughal monuments.
ASI is the central institution in Indian archaeology and monument conservation. Its official page says Cunningham’s early survey was systematic and used Buddhist finds and monuments to understand ancient routes. (asi.nic.in)
3. ASI Epigraphy Branch
Founded in 1886 at Bangalore.
Broad work:
- Collecting inscriptions.
- Taking estampages.
- Deciphering scripts.
- Editing inscriptions.
- Publishing inscriptions.
- Building dynastic chronology.
The ASI Epigraphy Branch was created by the British Government of India in 1886 at Bangalore as the Office of the Epigraphist to the Government. Its first head was Dr. Eugen Hultzsch, a German Indologist and Sanskritist.
The aim was to systematically collect, copy, decipher, translate and publish inscriptions, because inscriptions were seen as a crucial source for reconstructing India’s political, religious, linguistic and social history. (asi.nic.in)
Before Indian independence in 1947, the branch’s major accomplishments were:
- Systematic inscription collection: it copied and documented thousands of inscriptions from temples, copper plates, caves, pillars and monuments across India.
- Annual Reports on Indian Epigraphy: the first annual report was brought out by E. Hultzsch in 1887, giving scholars regular notices of newly found inscriptions. (Wikipedia)
- Epigraphia Indica: this became ASI’s major scholarly series for publishing edited inscriptions; fascicles began appearing from 1888, with early full volumes from the 1890s. (onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu)
- South Indian Inscriptions series: Hultzsch edited the first volume, published in 1890; these early volumes became fundamental sources for Pallava, Chola, Chalukya, Rashtrakuta, Hoysala and Vijayanagara history. (Wikipedia)
- Historical reconstruction: the branch helped fix dynastic chronologies, royal genealogies, regnal years, land grants, temple endowments, administrative divisions, religious patronage, village economies and language history.
ASI’s epigraphy page says the Epigraphy Branch came into existence in 1886 and that the British opened a separate branch because they realized the importance of inscriptions for reconstructing India’s history. It also says the branch collected thousands of inscriptions and edited and published them. (asi.nic.in).
This branch is especially important for constructing Hindu history of India before Islam arrived, because much pre-Islamic royal history comes from Sanskrit, Prakrit, Tamil, Kannada, Telugu and other inscriptions.
Over the years, the main office was moved to suit the climatic requirements necessary to preserve delicate paper impressions:
- 1886: Founded in Bengaluru.
- 1903: Shifted to Ootacamund (Ooty).
- 1966: Permanently relocated to Mysuru
To summarize, the Epigraphy Branch transformed scattered inscriptions into a disciplined archive of Indian history. Much of what is now known about ancient and medieval Indian kingdoms—especially in South India—was clarified through its pre-Independence copying and publication work.
4. Epigraphia Indica
Started in the late 19th century; early fascicles began in 1888, with the first full volume in 1892. (Online Books Page)
Broad work:
Published inscriptions from all over India.
Gave text, translation, commentary.
Helped reconstruct dynasties, dates, genealogies, land grants and religious patronage.
Importance:
If one were to ask “who documented and translated the inscriptions that built ancient Indian history?” — a major answer would: ASI epigraphists and scholars publishing in Epigraphia Indica, South Indian Inscriptions, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum and related series.
5. Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum
Broad work:
Published important inscription corpora.
Especially useful for Mauryan, Gupta and other early inscriptions.
 |
| Sample cover |
The series is organized into specialized volumes, each focusing on a specific dynasty, era, or geographical region. Key volumes include: [1]
- Volume I: Inscriptions of Asoka by Alexander Cunningham (1877) and later revised by E. Hultzsch (1925), detailing the edicts of the Mauryan Emperor Asoka written in Brahmi, Kharosthi, and Aramaic. [1, 2, 3]
- Volume II: Covers the inscriptions of the Early Gupta Kings and their successors. [1]
- Volume III: Inscriptions of the Early Gupta Kings and Their Successors by John Faithfull Fleet (1888), which covers Gupta-era epigraphy. [1, 2, 3, 4]
- Volume IV: Inscriptions of the Kalachuri-Cedi Era (in multiple parts) edited by V.V. Mirashi. [1, 2]
- Volume V: Inscriptions of the Vakatakas, also edited by V.V. Mirashi. [1, 2]
- Volume VI & VII: Focuses on the inscriptions of the Paramaras, Chandelas, and subsequent medieval dynasties. [1, 2]
6. South Indian Inscriptions
The first volume was edited by E. Hultzsch and published in 1890. It became a major source for Pallava, Chola, Chalukya and other South Indian histories. (Wikipedia)
Broad work:
Tamil, Kannada, Telugu and Sanskrit inscriptions.
Temple grants.
Chola administration.
Royal genealogies.
Village assemblies.
Donations and taxes.
 |
| Volume I of the South Indian Inscriptions, edited by E. Hultzsch and published in 1890 |
7. Epigraphia Carnatica
Associated especially with B. L. Rice in Mysore.
Broad work:
Karnataka inscriptions.
Kannada, Sanskrit and related records.
Ganga, Chalukya, Hoysala, Vijayanagara and local histories.
Importance:
Major base for reconstructing Karnataka’s early and medieval history.
8. Princely State Archaeological Departments
Several princely states had their own archaeology or antiquities departments before Independence.
Important examples:
Hyderabad State Archaeology Department. (See seperate blog post for more details )
Mysore Archaeological Department.
Baroda State archaeology/museum work.
Travancore archaeology.
Jaipur and Rajputana collections.
Gwalior, Kashmir, Bhopal and others.
A recent Archaeopress volume notes that princely-state archaeology before 1937 included Hyderabad, Mysore, Baroda, Jammu and Kashmir, Gwalior, Travancore, Jaipur, Bhopal, Nagod and Mayurbhanj. (Archaeopress)
Broad work:
Local monuments.
Temple inscriptions.
Buddhist/Jain/Hindu sites.
Regional museums.
Conservation.
Publication of local inscriptions.
Excavation of regional sites.
9. Deccan College, Pune
Broad work:
Archaeology.
Linguistics.
Ancient Indian history.
Prehistory.
Protohistory.
Training of Indian archaeologists.
Importance:
One of the major postcolonial academic centres for archaeology.
10. Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Pune
Founded in 1917.
Broad work:
Sanskrit and Prakrit manuscripts.
Indology.
Critical editions.
Preservation of ancient texts.
BORI’s own site says it was founded on 6 July 1917 to commemorate R. G. Bhandarkar. (Bori University)
Importance:
Not primarily an excavation body, but vital for reconstructing ancient and Hindu intellectual, religious and textual history.
11. State Archaeology Departments after Independence
Every major Indian state developed archaeology/museum departments.
Broad work:
State-protected monuments.
Local excavations.
Regional museums.
Temple and inscription documentation.
Conservation.
Village/site surveys.
Examples:
Telangana/Hyderabad archaeology.
Karnataka archaeology.
Tamil Nadu archaeology.
Maharashtra archaeology.
Gujarat archaeology.
Odisha archaeology.
Kerala archaeology.
Rajasthan archaeology.
Bihar archaeology.
Uttar Pradesh archaeology.
12. Universities and research institutes
Important centres include:
Deccan College.
Banaras Hindu University.
University of Calcutta.
University of Madras.
University of Mysore.
Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda.
Aligarh Muslim University.
Jawaharlal Nehru University.
Delhi University.
University of Pune.
Tamil University.
Kannada University.
Kerala Council for Historical Research.
Broad work:
Excavations.
Regional archaeology.
Epigraphy.
Numismatics.
Art history.
Ancient Indian history.
Early medieval studies.
13. Indian Council of Historical Research, ICHR
Founded in 1972 by the Government of India. Its official site says it was established by the Ministry of Education and Social Welfare on 27 March 1972. (Indian Council of Historical Research)
Broad work:
Historical research funding.
Seminars.
Publications.
Research projects.
Support to historians.
It is not an archaeological excavation body, but it influenced post-Independence historical research.
4) Where does “Hindu history” before Muslim rule come from?
This is the most important part.
It does not come from one single continuous Hindu royal chronicle
Unlike some Islamic courts that produced Persian chronicles, most pre-Islamic Hindu kings did not leave continuous year-by-year political histories. Some courts produced poetry, genealogies and eulogies, but these were not modern history books.
So “Hindu history” before the arrival of Muslim polities is reconstructed from many sources.
Main sources for pre-Islamic Hindu kings and kingdoms
1. Inscriptions
This is the backbone.
Types:
Stone inscriptions.
Pillar inscriptions.
Cave inscriptions.
Temple inscriptions.
Copper-plate land grants.
Hero stones.
Boundary stones.
Donative inscriptions.
Royal prashastis.
Languages/scripts:
Sanskrit.
Prakrit.
Tamil.
Kannada.
Telugu.
Malayalam.
Odia.
Marathi.
Bengali.
Brahmi and later regional scripts.
What they tell us:
King’s name.
Dynasty.
Genealogy.
Titles.
Victories.
Land grants.
Temple donations.
Tax exemptions.
Administrative divisions.
Village assemblies.
Religious patronage.
Queens and officials.
Merchant guilds.
Dates and regnal years.
Examples:
Ashokan edicts.
Allahabad Pillar inscription of Samudragupta.
Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin II.
Junagadh inscription of Rudradaman.
Chola temple inscriptions.
Pallava copper plates.
Rashtrakuta and Chalukya inscriptions.
Ganga, Hoysala, Kakatiya and Vijayanagara inscriptions.
2. Coins
Coins help establish:
Rulers.
Dynasties.
Titles.
Political control.
Religious symbols.
Trade.
Economy.
Dates and mint regions.
Examples:
Punch-marked coins.
Satavahana coins.
Gupta gold coins.
Kushan coins.
Western Kshatrapa coins.
Chola coins.
Regional early medieval coins.
3. Sanskrit court literature
Examples:
Kalidasa.
Bana’s Harshacharita.
Vishakhadatta’s Mudrarakshasa.
Bilhana’s Vikramankadevacharita.
Kalhana’s Rajatarangini.
Court kavya and prashasti literature.
These texts preserve royal ideology, court culture and political memory, but they must be used carefully because they often exaggerate.
4. Puranas and genealogical lists
The Puranas give dynastic lists, especially for ancient dynasties. But these lists are mixed with myth, theology and later editing. Historians use them alongside inscriptions and coins, not alone.
5. Buddhist and Jain texts
These preserve information about:
Early kingdoms.
Cities.
Merchants.
Religious patronage.
Rulers.
Social life.
Trade routes.
They are especially useful for the Mahajanapada, Mauryan and early historic periods.
6. Tamil Sangam literature
Used for early South Indian history, especially:
Cholas.
Cheras.
Pandyas.
Warfare.
Patronage.
Trade.
Poets.
Social organization.
7. Temple architecture and iconography
Temples tell us about:
Patronage.
Dynastic power.
Religious developments.
Regional styles.
Economy.
Guilds and artisans.
Sacred geography.
Examples:
Gupta temples.
Pallava temples at Mahabalipuram/Kanchipuram.
Chola temples.
Chalukya temples.
Rashtrakuta Kailasa temple at Ellora.
Odisha temples.
Khajuraho.
Hoysala temples.
Kakatiya temples.
8. Foreign accounts
Used to supplement Indian evidence:
Megasthenes.
Greek and Roman geographers.
Faxian.
Xuanzang.
Yijing.
Al-Biruni.
Arab geographers.
These accounts are useful but not neutral; they must be checked against Indian evidence.
5) Who actually documented, recorded and translated this pre-Islamic/Hindu history?
This happened in stages.
Stage 1: Early Orientalists and Indian pandits
British Orientalists depended heavily on Indian scholars, pandits, munshis and local experts.
Important figures:
Sir William Jones.
Charles Wilkins.
H. T. Colebrooke.
Indian Sanskrit pandits and Persian munshis whose names were often under-recorded.
Local temple scholars and manuscript keepers.
They translated texts and began comparing Sanskrit literature with Greek, Persian and biblical chronologies.
Stage 2: James Prinsep and the epigraphic breakthrough
Prinsep’s work in the 1830s made it possible to read Brahmi and Kharosthi inscriptions. This was the single biggest technical breakthrough for ancient Indian political history.
After this, inscriptions could be used to reconstruct:
Mauryan history.
Ashoka.
Gupta history.
Early dynasties.
Buddhist sites.
Early scripts and languages.
Stage 3: Alexander Cunningham and ASI survey work
Cunningham used inscriptions, coins, Chinese pilgrim accounts and site surveys to identify ancient places. His work placed many ancient cities, Buddhist sites and routes onto the historical map. ASI’s official history says he followed Xuanzang’s route and systematically recorded Buddhist finds and monuments. (asi.nic.in)
Stage 4: Formal epigraphy under ASI
The ASI Epigraphy Branch, founded in 1886, collected and published inscriptions systematically. (asi.nic.in)
Important epigraphists and scholars included:
J. F. Fleet — Gupta and early inscriptions.
E. Hultzsch — South Indian inscriptions and Ashokan inscriptions.
F. Kielhorn — Sanskrit inscriptions and chronology.
Georg Bühler — scripts, manuscripts, inscriptions.
D. R. Bhandarkar — inscriptions, ancient Indian history.
R. G. Bhandarkar — Indology and ancient history.
B. L. Rice — Epigraphia Carnatica, Mysore/Karnataka inscriptions.
K. V. Subrahmanya Aiyer — South Indian epigraphy.
H. Krishna Sastri — epigraphy.
V. Venkayya — South Indian inscriptions.
D. C. Sircar — major Indian epigraphist after Independence.
Their publications formed the documentary base from which much “Hindu dynastic history” was reconstructed.
Stage 5: Indian historians and archaeologists
Indian scholars then used this evidence to write broader histories.
Important names:
R. G. Bhandarkar.
D. R. Bhandarkar.
R. C. Majumdar.
H. C. Raychaudhuri.
K. A. Nilakanta Sastri.
D. D. Kosambi.
R. S. Sharma.
Romila Thapar.
D. C. Sircar.
B. D. Chattopadhyaya.
Upinder Singh.
Noboru Karashima.
Burton Stein.
Hermann Kulke.
Cynthia Talbot.
So, the short answer is:
Pre-Islamic Hindu history was reconstructed mostly by modern historians from inscriptions, coins, archaeology, temples, Sanskrit/regional literature, copper plates, Puranic genealogies and foreign accounts. The recording and translation of inscriptions was first spearheaded under British Orientalist and ASI institutions, especially after James Prinsep and Alexander Cunningham, and then carried forward by ASI epigraphists, Indian scholars, universities, state archaeology departments and post-Independence historians.
6) Examples: how one archaeological or epigraphic discovery changed history
Harappa and Mohenjo-daro
Before: Indian civilization was often dated mainly from the Vedic period onward.
After: India had a Bronze Age urban civilization in the third millennium BCE.
Change: Indian history was pushed back by nearly 2,000 years. (Harappa)
Ashokan edicts
Before: Ashoka was known through Buddhist textual memory.
After: His own inscriptions gave direct royal evidence.
Change: Mauryan political geography, dhamma, administration and early writing became historically documentable.
Samudragupta’s Allahabad Pillar inscription
Before: Gupta political expansion was only partially known.
After: The inscription gave a royal list of campaigns, defeated rulers and political relationships.
Change: Gupta imperial history became reconstructable.
Chola temple inscriptions
Before: Chola history depended on literature and later memory.
After: Thousands of inscriptions revealed administration, taxation, temples, villages, assemblies and overseas connections.
Change: South Indian history became one of the best-documented pre-modern regional histories of India.
Arikamedu
Before: Indo-Roman trade was known from texts like the Periplus and Roman writers.
After: Archaeology produced physical evidence of Roman trade goods.
Change: South India’s role in Indian Ocean trade became materially visible.
Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati
Before: Buddhism was known mostly from texts and a few famous sites.
After: Excavations and inscriptions revealed Buddhist patronage, art, monasteries and donor communities in the Deccan/Andhra region.
Change: Buddhism’s social and regional history expanded beyond North India.
Conclusion paragraph
The rise of archaeology changed Indian history from a history based mainly on texts, legends, religious memory and visible monuments into a history supported by dated objects, inscriptions, coins, excavated cities, stratigraphy and scientific evidence. The discovery of the Indus Valley Civilisation at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro was the most dramatic example: it pushed Indian urban history back to the third millennium BCE and showed that the subcontinent had a Bronze Age civilization comparable in antiquity to Egypt and Mesopotamia. The decipherment of Brahmi by James Prinsep made Ashoka and many early Indian dynasties historically readable. The ASI, its Epigraphy Branch, Epigraphia Indica, South Indian Inscriptions, state archaeology departments, princely-state archaeology departments, universities and Indian historians together built the source-base from which ancient, pre-Islamic and Hindu royal history was reconstructed. In other words, much of what we know about Hindu kings before Muslim rule does not come from continuous royal chronicles; it comes from a painstaking reconstruction of inscriptions, copper plates, coins, temples, grants, literary references, archaeology and later scholarly interpretation.
Comments
Post a Comment